Is there a god? Essay

The justification for the belief in the existence of God has historically evaded the scope of empirical verification. However, extraordinary historic events and profound cultural and political evolutions have taken place due to the influence of religious beliefs. Additionally, religious belief has impacted matters of social justice, economic parity, and moral and ethical beliefs all around the world. Whether or not the existence of a God (or Gods) can be established by modern scientific investigation seems irrelevant to the course of human events, many of which are propelled by religious convictions. Despite the native reluctance and technical inability of contemporary scientists to corroborate the existence of God, philosophical arguments based on psuedo-scientific criteria are numerous; most of these empirical arguments are based in one form or another around the idea-structure of Swinburne’s famous treatise â€Å"Is There a God?,† which purports to prove by rational hypothesis and logic that God exists. Foremost among Swinburne’s arguments is that the natural order of the universe demonstrates intelligent design: â€Å"†It is extraordinary that there should exist anything at all[†¦ ] And so many things. Maybe chance could have thrown up the odd electron. BUT so many particles! [†¦ ] If we can explain the many bits of the universe by one simple being which keeps them in existence, we should do so–even if inevitably we cannot explain the existence of that simple being. † (Swinburne, 1996, p. 48-49) Swinburne’s argument is steeped in formal logic and rhetoric, yet the underlying principles are relatively simple. The idea that the existence of a complex universe which is well-suited to human experience postulates an intelligent creator for both things: the universe and humanity, is based less in rationality than in the emotion of astonished wonder. In other words, because Swinburne finds the universe to be a marvel of curiosities and interestingly designed elements and phenomena does not indicate that the universe is experienced this away by a majority of human beings or in any way that the experience Swinburne records indicates the existence of a God. Basically, the argument for intelligent design is based on analogy: the universe is well-designed as a human made artifact might be well-designed, therefore, the universe must have an intelligent designer. Nonetheless, this â€Å"teleological argument† which is normally â€Å"construed as an argument from analogy: Since the universe is analogous to some human artifact that one knows to be designed, probably the universe itself is designed† breaks down when examined closely. Although Hume and others have described the universe as a â€Å"watch† and argued that † just as we can infer that a watch found on a heath has a designer, so we can infer that the universe has a designer† (Martin, 1990, p. 125) the analogy is specious when taken to its logical conclusions. For example, if the analogy were carried to its logical extreme, one would end up with conclusions not acceptable to the theist. Because â€Å"machines are usually made by many intelligent beings; [†¦ ] some form of polytheism rather than monotheism would be warranted by the argument† as well as the fact that â€Å"the beings who create machines have bodies, so God must have a body. If machines have imperfections, we have grounds for supposing that the creators are not perfect. So since the universe has imperfections, one should conclude that God is not perfect. † (Martin, 1990, p. 127) These analogous conclusion run contrary to demonstrating the existence of God insofar as Swinburne intended his analogy to function. In fact, the deeper one takes the analogy, the closer one comes to the opposite conclusion: that no monotheistic God at all exists. Another of the assertions made by religious pragmatists is that not only the existence of a universe, but the existence of an orderly universe with a complex (and generally hierarchical) system of phenomena, demonstrates the existence of God. Again, because an orderly world is both functional and to some degree pleasurable (according to Swinburne) there must be an intelligence behind the design of the universe. And merely an intelligent designer but an omnipotent creator, who â€Å"is able to produce a world orderly in these respects. And he has good reason to choose to do so: a world containing human persons is a good thing. Persons have experiences, and thoughts, and can make choices, and their choices can make big differences to themselves, to others, and to the inanimate world. God, being perfectly good, is generous He wants to share. † (Swinburne, 1996, p. 52) This latter postulation seems completely out of order in a rational and â€Å"scientific† discussion, but as this discussion will later show, the emotionality of belief is an aspect of religious conviction which enters into not only the so-called logical argument on behalf of their faith, but as the primary emotional and psychological connection with the God or Gods which are believed in by religious devotees. Again, like Swinburne’s assertion that the mere existence of the universe indicates a designer, his likewise analogy that the universe, being â€Å"well-ordered† indicates intelligent design, is easily refuted simply by examining Swinburne’s analogy itself closely. If the universe is wonderfully complex and apparently designed to fulfill humanity’s needs and expectations, modern science accepts the possibility of multi-universes, most of which cannot be meaningfully detected by mankind: â€Å"Although it may be true that the universe is unique, there is no reason to suppose, in the light of our present evidence, that this is relevant in judging whether it is created or not. We have no reason to suppose it cannot be judged by the same criteria we use to judge whether planets, rocks, and gismos are created[†¦] it may be urged that as our technology advances, we may be able to create objects that resemble more and more the natural objects we find in the universe. † (Martin, 1990, p. 332) Obviously, the projected future of science could be extend logically to include the technology which could create geological elements, in fact planets themselves, which would demonstrate not the intelligent design of a God but the intelligent design of mankind, which is among the animal orders. That last assertion is something that Swinburne objects to with great fervor: â€Å"At some time in evolutionary history bodies of complex animals become connected to souls, and this, I shall be arguing, is something utterly beyond the power of science to â€Å"explain. But theism can explain this–for God has the power and reason to join souls to bodies. † (Swinburne, 1996, p. 69-70) Of course, science has no power to â€Å"explain† mystical or supernatural phenomena. The lack of scientific inquiry into these ares comprises another, more dramatically contemporary, argument for the existence of Gid. This argument posits the idea that since science and scientists are reluctant to investigate mystical and supernatural phenomena, proof of the existence of God has evaded science because the proof for God’s existence resides in the supernatural sphere. Those who argue along these lines contend that â€Å"Scientific practice is often contrasted with religious belief in that the former is supposed to be open-minded whereas the latter is said to be close-minded and hence closer to ideology† and these same observers resent being categorized as â€Å"close-minded† instead positing that science is, in fact,narrow-minded for not taking into account the supernatural. (Van Heerden, 2004) Investigation of the supernatural does, in fact, seem to be outside of the preferred scope of scientific investigation, although some noteworthy efforts have been made. In 1882 â€Å"a group of eminent scholars from the humanities and the sciences[†¦ ]founded the Society for Psychical Research, with the stated purpose of investigating so-called ‘paranormal’ phenomena in a scientific manner† but this gesture seems to have been more or less forgotten in contemporary science. The prevailing â€Å"disdain amongst certain scientific atheists regarding religious belief, and their rejection of religion is based not on sound physical/material evidence but on existing prejudices. There is no existing evidence that disproves the existence of a supernatural agent or agents; or which proves conclusively that other mechanisms/agencies are not at work alongside (or working through) ones already identified and canonized in orthodox science† (Van Heerden, 2004) Van Heerden’s argument is one of the most compelling arguments that theists have at their disposal. It must be remembered, though, that this contention is one of distinguishing a lack of evidence which would prove the existence of God; it is not a conformation that such evidence is there to be collected, merely a positing of an area which has not been thoroughly exhausted in the search for possible evidence. Such arguments are, in fact, the province of mysticism rather than science and seem to be an acknowledgment that science cannot â€Å"fulfil this purpose because it extends alienation in the world by driving subject and object ever further apart in its reductive thinking. Mysticism, at the other end of the spectrum, claims the complete elimination of alienation; ; but again this contention has nothing whatsoever to do with establishing evidence for the existence of God; rather it is an emotional appeal, based in human psychology rather than in empirical, objective evidence. (Van Heerden, 2004) In fact, the psychological and hence subjective connection to the idea of a God or Gods is what drives the conviction many believers profess to having in the existence of God. A survey of theists revealed a personal, subjective, rather than empirically phenomenal, vision of God among respondents. Such a distinction from empirical evidence is important because it indicates that even among strong believers, God is viewed more as an internal psychological component rather than an external force which exudes omnipotent power over the created universe: â€Å"God is valued as an end in Himself rather than as a means to other ends. Most people want God for the same reason for which they want friends, and His relation to them is exactly that of a very dear and very lovable and very sympathizing friend. † (Pratt, 1907, p. 264). Theists, as we have seen through our preceding discussion, typically move from an empirical or scientific mode of argument to an emotional mode of argument to a mystical mode of argument and finally to a moral or ethical mode of argument. This final mode is usually articulated, fundamentally, as ana indictment of human moral and ethical character. Without a God, it is posited, the moral and ethical systems of human society would crumble. Or conversely, since humanity is so innately sinful, elaborate ethical and moral systems as handed down from God must be used to restrain our worst tendencies. However, another vision fo a â€Å"Godless† world acn be equally demonstrated, due the lack of any evidence as God as an active force in the universe and not merely as a psychological quantity â€Å"the religious consciousness values God chiefly as a companion. The need of Him is a social need. Religious people would miss Him if they should lose their faith, just as they miss a dead friend† however, society would surely endure. (Pratt, 1907, p. 268) In fact, atheists envision a world which, would in some ways,. be superior to the theistically driven worlds which have inspired wars and intellectual conservatism. Should atheism become the dominant world-view, it is posited, then â€Å"one would anticipate vast changes in many areas. For example, there would probably be fewer wars and less violence than there is now[†¦ ]. The birth rate would also drop in many countries, since religious objections to contraception would no longer prevail[†¦ ]. Church and state would probably become separate in countries in which they have traditionally been interwoven[†¦] This in turn would bring about profound political changes. † But such changes are unlikely to happen in the near future because, despite the lack of any credible scientific or empirical evidence to demonstrate the existence of God, the psychological component of these belief-systems are so endemic and so influential in world-affairs that their functional repudiation, despite the ease with which it can be made from a scientific or philosophical angel, seems destined for a distant future. (Martin, 1990, p. 459) References Martin, M. (1990). Atheism: A Philosophical Justification. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Pratt, J. B. (1907). The Psychology of Religious Belief. New York: Macmillan. Swinburne, R. (1996). Is There a God?. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Van Heerden, A. (2004, June). Why Atheism Is Unscientific. Contemporary Review, 284, 351+.

Educational Theory: Essentialism and Perennialism Essay

Abstract Keywords phies. Applications of Essentialism and Perennialism that include roles and impacts on certain groups including students, teachers, and administrators are outlined. A conclusion is offered that analyzes current philosophical viewpoints and a solution is offered to teachers that frames present philosophical thought to inform and support teachers in creating a successful classroom environment aimed at promoting achievement for all students. Philosophical Overviews Essentialism Perennialism Philosophical Overviews Central to all academic disciplines and the formation of ideas are the philosophies that guide our values and beliefs regarding a given academic discipline. Public education in the United States is guided by five main philosophical viewpoints. These philosophical viewpoints include: †¢ Essentialism, †¢ Progressivism, †¢ Perennialism, †¢ Existentialism, and †¢ Behaviorism. The guiding philosophies of education reflect not only the internal assumptions of the individual teacher, but they also construct the culture of schools and school districts. Clashes occur when guiding philosophies conflict. Philosophies are also tied to an individual’s or organization’s underlying values, which values are difficult to change, unless an internal transformation occurs within an individual or an organization. Another influence of change in a given school occurs when a new administrator brings their own philosophy to the educational environment that is different than previously held beliefs. However, the overarching determinants for philosophies that drive the public education system are derived from the university or college education program. Any real or substantive transformation in public education environments typically occurs, because of changes in higher education philosophies. These philosophies are derived from the original philosophers who wrote about the philosophy and reflect a much earlier time and societal construct. In response to changing societal views Applications Students Teachers Administrators Issues Barriers to Essentialism in America’s Classrooms Barriers to Perennialism in America’s Classrooms Conclusion Terms & Concepts Bibliography Suggested Reading Abstract An overview of Essentialism and Perennialism, their philosophical definitions, historical underpinnings, and their role and impacts on student learning in public school education environments is presented. Also presented is a brief overview of potential applications of Essentialism and Perennialism and their relationship to specific subjects, which are â€Å"basic subjects.† Further analyzed are ways public education has been impacted by different philoso- Keywords Education Educational Foundations Essentialism Life-long Learning Perennialism and internal value systems governing philosophies that inspire the teacher’s relationship with the student, philosophies for many educators and institutions have changed from teacher-centered to more student-centered beliefs. Essentialism and Perennialism are two philosophical viewpoints contributing to education foundations and these are examined in this paper. Essentialism William Bagley was considered the founding philosopher of the Essentialist movement. Bagley’s philosophy of education argued that students should learn â€Å"something† in addition to the process of thinking. The philosophy also asserted that other philosophies over-emphasized the process of learning instead of content knowledge in the curriculum (Null, 2003). The movement â€Å"essentially† began with Bagley’s deeply held value that education should teach knowledge from the past, because if students were separated from past knowledge the future of democracy would be endangered. Bagley and other Essentialists believed that education should be rich in basic curriculum content and the need for stricter discipline in the educational environment. The Essentialist philosophy became popular when the American society had been challenged by the Great Depression. Bagley argued that the duty of education should be teach to democracy and these teachings should offset the overemphasis on growth and individualism (Bagley, 1934, 123 – 126). In fact, in his writings, Bagley was resolute in reminding educational professionals that a healthy democracy was dependant on strong curriculum content. In his first book, The Educative Process, Bagley wrote, The charge of â€Å"loose† schoolcraft and a demand for a return to the older and harsher educative methods frequently recur in contemporary educational literature. Under the present regime, it is asserted, drill and discipline have become obsolete terms, effort is at a discount, and the net result is a loss of stamina and a weakening of the moral fiber. The harsher methods, it is maintained, have been justly eliminated†¦.Both parties to this controversy appear to have neglected some very important data that have been accumulated during the past ten years by the now unpopular and much-abused cult of â€Å"Child Study,† and this neglect is the more unfortunate because the light that child study throws upon the main questions at issue renders these heated and speculative discussions quite superfluous (Bagley, 1905, 184 – 185). Sadker and Sadker (1994) reported that present day American Essentialism accepts the social, political, and economic structure of American society and culture and is a fairly conservative philosophy. Essentialists believe that the role of educators is to instill traditional American values like the â€Å"respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others, and practicality† (p. 369). In the classroom, the educator’s role may be impacted by these beliefs in two ways. First, in a classroom constructed by this philosophy, parents would potentially see traditional disciplines like math, science, history, foreign language, and literature being taught. Second, the teacher’s role in the Essentialist classroom would be to serve as a model for the students in intellectual and moral capacities. Based on these conclusions, the Essentialist educator’s goal is that all students will possess basic skills, an extensive body of knowledge, and disciplined pragmatic minds ready to meaningfully contribute to a democratic society in America. The overarching theme of American Essentialist teaching is to center on learning and applying basic skills in the real world. Parents most likely will not see very much teacher creativity or student choice in the Essentialist classroom, because teaching is based on an information delivery model that students receive and apply. Also, parents would probably not see a proclivity toward differentiation for the diverse learner. In some Essentialist classrooms, educators have blended Perennialism into the framework of their instruction. Perennialism Perennialism is based on the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and St. Thomas Aquinas. According to Rohmann (1999), Aquina’s primary goal was to reconcile faith and reason or philosophy and revelation (p. 23). There are also two types of Perennialists: those who maintain a religious approach to education like Aquinas, and those who follow a more secular view developed in the twentieth century by two well-known educational philosophers, Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. According to William F. Buckley, Jr. (2001), Mortimer Adler read Plato’s works while working as a secretary to the editor of the New York Sun, and resolved to become a philosopher. Later, Adler partnered with Robert Hutchins, then president of the University of Chicago. Together these two philosophers advocated for a new of thinking and embarked on a philosophical journey that ultimately changed the shape of public education (p. 54). Their philosophies extended a new way of thinking known as Perennialism. Specifically, Hutchins and Adler promoted the Secular Perennialist view. Secular Perennialists advocate education as a means of constructing a common foundation of historical thought and reason directed at transforming the student’s paradigm or way of thinking. Secular Perennialist thinkers believe that in order to ensure societal survival, all citizens must be exposed to and taught ways of thinking that will secure individual freedoms, human rights, and responsibilities true to the nature of a Democracy. According to Hutchins, these beliefs do not come from text books. He stated: The products of American high schools are illiterate; and a degree from a famous college or university is no guarantee that the graduate is in any better case. One of the most remarkable features of American society is that the difference between the â€Å"uneducated† and the â€Å"educated† is so slight (Hutchins, 1954). To support this premise, Mortimer Adler wrote: The two major obstacles to reform have been mentioned elsewhere. One is the persistent failure of educators to recognize that a proportionate equality of results can be achieved when children who differ markedly in the degree of their educability are given the same quality or kind of schooling. The other is the persistent refusal of the educational establishment to replace the scheme of grading that puts a student in his or her niche on the bell-shaped curve by an assessment of the student’s achievement wholly in terms of that student’s capacity without reference to any other individual’s achievement (Adler, n.d.). Essentially, Perennialism teaches concepts and focuses on knowledge and the meaning of knowledge. A classroom constructed from this format typically espouses a traditional philosophy where a teacher answers questions and inquires from the students in order for them to gain an understanding. This format allows students to gain the ability to develop a full â€Å"range of rational powers.† While students learn the â€Å"profound and enduring† ideas present throughout time, there is little emphasis on those who learn discipline by using textbooks (Shaw, 2006). Philosophically, Perennialism seems to espouse personal development and internal transformation rather than focusing on specific disciplines. The crux of Perennialism seems to initiate multiple ways of thinking about given curriculum, rather than a â€Å"one-size fits all approach† and dedication to one set of ideas taught through one specific curriculum. The Perennialist might freely enact debate and see the act of thoughtful debate as an advantage in response to reading a given text, because the debate itself would allow students the opportunity to think about specific texts and form their own processes of thoughts and conclusions. Within this framework, it can be theorized that the Perennialist classroom would encompass the drive for reflective thought based on inquiry. It can be argued that the overarching goal of the Perennialist classroom is to promote opportunities for students to interpret, question, and think, in order to prosper keen insights and renewed thinking about old ideas. A parent, sending their child to the Perennialist classroom would inevitably see an orderly teaching environment adhering to specific rules and common forms of basic curriculum driven by thoughtful debate, inquiry, and teacher driven student introspection. Based on the evidence supporting Perennialism as a traditional philosophical model, a parent most likely would not see differentiated thinking strategies employed for the non-traditional thinker. After reviewing literature that described these philosophies, and seeking to understand the established philosophies regarding educational foundations in public schools in the United States, it is easily arguable that both of these philosophies of Essentialism and Perennialism can be readily discerned in classrooms across Amer-ica. It can can also be elaborated that most higher education teacher training courses have been founded on the premise of inquiry and thought, underscored by established, district approved or state mandated curricula, which are also supported by Essentialism and Perennialism. However, after reviewing the literature and contemplating deeply, multiple conclusions can be drawn and applications suggested for students, teachers, and administrators. Applications Students It can be theorized that educational philosophies drive the classroom environment of all classrooms in all educational environments. These educational philosophies are largely driven by specific values that individual teachers hold, which are derived from the teacher’s internal assumptions. The teacher’s internal assumptions drive attitudes governing student-teacher relationships, student discipline, and student learning. These internal assumptions and value systems are the clay that shapes that classroom environment and all of the attitudes held within. For students, they may never understand why conflict exists within the classroom environment between themselves and a teacher, in the case of a student with diverse needs or non-traditional thinking patterns. In addition to experiencing conflict within a classroom environment, students may be struggling with a myriad of family issues, learning issues, and internal conflict. The classroom and the teacher-student relationship may be the primary source for the student to learn and relate. In the face of this conflict, students may not be able to clearly articulate their conflict. Quite simply, some types of philosophies invite fewer kinds of interactions and student-teacher relationships. Students may not understand how or why their classroom has been formed in accordance with specific philosophical underpinnings. An argument could be made that students would benefit from a deeper understanding regarding why the classroom environment has been constructed in a given framework. Teachers should consider sharing their philosophical viewpoints with students in order to allow students the opportunity to reflect on specific attributes of the classroom environment, teacher attitudes, and student expectations. This kind of communication could occur regardless of the philosophies that teachers hold regarding other types of classroom contructs. For teachers struggling with one type of philosophical construct in terms of motivating students or building positive relationships with parents, communicating their philosophical viewpoint could be helpful for alleviating tension and conflict to allow students a window of insight into why the classroom has been designed in accordance with specific guidelines. Teachers In most teacher education formation courses, students formulate a philosophy statement of how their classroom will be designed. Many times, student teachers will be able to test their philosophy during the student teaching experience. However, most students are only given a limited overview of specific philosophies that might shape their philosophical view. Typically, specific philosophies like Essentialism, Progressivism, Perennialism, Existentialism, and Behaviorism taught in undergra duate programs are taught in an introductory foundations course or in conjunction with educational psychology classes. The philosophies taught in university classes are typically guided by the philosophy of the given philosophical platform adopted by the university education department. Based on these assumptions, teachers need to understand that the initial philosophies that guide their educational platform most likely will evolve and transform as the educator matures and new ways of thinking are constructed. It is possible that a teacher’s philosophies will grow or completely transform as the teacher recognizes the specific needs in the classroom environment and decide to meet all of the needs in the classroom. Teachers originally dedicated to one philosophy may later find themselves adopting a multi-philosophical approach that will govern their classroom approaches. Understanding the philosophies of the teaching discipline is useful for multiple reasons. First, it is helpful to know that philosophy springs from our ideas as humans. These are the â€Å"intangibles that fuel our thoughts, theories, philosophies, beliefs, ideologies,† and an overview of the the thinkers who articulated them. It can be argued that ideas â€Å"are the foundations of our culture. They inspire our thoughts and inform our beliefs. Many of them form the very basis of our identity† (Rohmann, 1999, p. ix). These intangibles are central to how we view ourselves and those in relationship with us. Most likely, these relationships will impact attitudes toward students and colleagues. Teachers need to critically understand that many of the conflicts that arise in schools and between school personnel are tied to the philosophies we hold that result in a clash of ideas. When one teacher holds a dramatically different view of their role than another teacher, conflict may occur. One of the central conflicts currently present in education exists between the external culture of the federal government mandating specific demands that edu cators must meet. Teachers often hold a very different view regarding mandated testing or standards established by No Child Left Behind. Teachers often view these mandates as inhibitors for creating a research based, thought provoking classroom resulting a student-centered, â€Å"learningful† educational environment. Solutions to these dilemmas are not readily obtainable, but the beginning of understanding arises from knowing ourselves and our individual philosophies regarding education and our role as teachers. Administrators Administrators are central to preparing the educational environment for teachers and students. Philosophical constructs are the building blocks for this preparation. Even in graduate programs preparing administrators for leadership, these formative philosophies are not readily taught. Only when administrators seek understanding or prepare a thesis or increase their educational preparation to better understand philosophical viewpoints can they begin to learn the culture of the school over which they preside. These philosophies govern all interactions within a school and determine attitudes of all adults within the educational set- ting. The nature of conflict is derived when philosophies clash. For new administrators entering a school setting in which conflict is prevalent, it would be helpful to understand the philosophical underpinnings that guide the cultural construct. Only after these philosophical underpinnings can be analyzed will a new philosophical platform emerge to guide the leadership of the school. For administrators, philosophical constructs influence district policies and district relationships. Occasionally, conflict arises when philosophical viewpoints are opposed. In addition to the administrator’s role in overseeing the school staff, administrators must also balance their role in a larger context. Before entering into administration, professionals should apply for positions in districts with matching philosophies. Issues Both the Essentialist and Perennialist philosophies appear to be much more teacher centered than student centered. These philosophies also reflect a much earlier time in American history when cultural mandates significantly influenced established philosophies of specific eras and generations. For other various reasons, barriers exist that preclude full integration of either model. Barriers to Essentialism in America’s Classrooms Based on the background of Essentialism and its underpinnings, the philosophy adopts a highly conservative construct, which potentially clashes with the political philosophies of today’s educational setting. The central concept of Essentialism seems to be a â€Å"back to basics† approach to traditional educational concepts. The academics of the philosophy are mainly driven by the notion that American schools should transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. It can be argued that Essentialists believe the role of education is to instill traditional American virtues as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others, and practicality. In this type of classroom, it can be asserted that â€Å"a system of diversity† would be difficult to achieve, and individuals with special education needs would experience difficulty in having their needs met. Based on the need for today’s classrooms to meet the needs of a variety of students, these are significant barriers that are not easily overcome despite the notion that Essentialism formed the foundation of the American education system and its response to preparing workers to work in factories and farms. These ideals were highly representative of early American culture and an early societal and cultural construct. However, many of these traditional American values have shifted in their composition to include more diversity in thinking, cultural construct, and societal composition. Barriers to Perennialism in America’s Classrooms Neither Essentialism nor Perennialism allows the students’ interests or experiences to substantially dictate what is taught. While the Essentialist philosophy focuses heavily on curriculum basics, Perennialism focuses more on forming critical, analytical thinkers. Well known Perennialist philosophers urged schools to spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students. However, the methodologies utilized by Perennialist thinkers to teach students to think critically are based on Socratic methodologies that most students in today’s culture could potentially view as outdated, despite the fact that many of today’s classrooms are based on the cultural norms that Essentialism and Perennialism have integrated in educational norms. In overcoming barriers to implementing Perennialist philosophical constructs, teachers should consider ways of inviting differentiated thinking processes for all students. Conclusion Essentialism and Perennialism are both heavily utilized in America’s classrooms along with an eclectic combination of the other educational philosophies. Philosophies that construct classrooms shape ways of teaching and set the backdrop for how and what students learn. In all educational environments, all of the main philosophies provide a framework for establishing classroom practices. One of the main issues in integrating philosophies is that the multiple differences in classrooms scatter the way in which students receive information and could potentially hinder how and what students learn from classroom to classroom. In order to create the most relevant learning experience for students, teachers should investigate the relevant educational philosophies, learn the specific philosophies that influence educational strategies integrated in specific learning environments, identify the philosophical constructs that seem to identify their specific ways of thinking and then utilize a philosophy that is well founded and arguable based on researched evidence of how students learn best. Essentially and perennially, the job of educators is to work for students. Best practice would suggest that the most informed philosophical background designed for each classroom dynamic would theoretically produce the best educational setting for the group of students served. Flexibility and research based practices typically inform best classroom results. Perennialism: Perennialism can be described as an educational philosophy aimed at teaching students ways of thinking that will secure individual freedoms, human rights, and responsibilities true to the nature of a Democracy. Bibliography Adler, M. J. (n.d.). â€Å"Reforming education—No quick fix,† Retrieved January 1, 2008 from Center for Applied Philosophy: The Radical Academy, http://www.radicalacademy.com Bagley, W. C. (1905). The educative process. New York: Macmillan. Buckley, Jr., W. F. (2001). Mortimer Adler is dead. National Review, 53(15), 54. Retrieved January 1, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier. http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&A N=4891604&site=ehost-live Hutchins, R. M. (1954). Great books: The foundation of a liberal education, NY: Simon & Schuster. Null, J. W. (2004). Social efficiency splintered: Multiple meanings instead of the hegemony of one. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 19(2), 99 – 124. Retrieved January 1, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dir ect=true&db=aph&AN=11801482&site=ehost-live Rohman, C. (1999). Ideas: A dictionary of important theories, concepts , beliefs, and thinkers. New York: Random House Books. Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Teachers, schools and society. New York: McGraw-Hill. Shaw, L. J. (2006). Five Educational Philosophies. Retrieved January 1, 2008 from http://edweb.sdsu.edu/LShaw/ f95syll/philos/phprogr.html

Hidden Connections

[pic] EMMANUEL KWAME ANTWI ID: UD16761BBU24478 SEMINAR CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT I â€Å"D† THE HIDDEN CONNECTIONS (ESSAY) ATLANTIC INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY HONOLULU, HAWAII DECEMBER 17, 2011 INTRODUCTION The Hidden Connections is a book authored by Fritjof Capra. In this book,  Capra relates today’s dynamic and complex human life styles to the symbiotic lives of  different interrelated and interdependent organisms. Specifically, he is trying to apply the ideology of obscurity assumptions to the close scrutiny of the magnitude of the interactions and correlations of mankind. He states in the book that if we are to maintain a future life, we need to learn to respect the rules of nature, the rules and principles that nature has inevitably adapted to advance and sustain what he calls the web of life. This book  explains and clears just how much the hypothetical thoughts and scientific theories which are much ignored by most of the world that operates outside the margins of science can practically be applied to resolving most of the problems that threaten the existence of this planet. This book brings to light the interrelation and interconnections of science in relation to our  societal and social organizations which most of us are not aware. This can be the reason why he titled the book ‘The Hidden Connections’, it is because most of the world’s population is either unaware f this understanding, or may be just negligent of its reality. According to a presentation by Darian Schiffman (academics, AIU) quoting from Capra (2002 p. vvi), the book basically has two goals, which are; to bring forth a new understanding of life through the presentation of a conceptual framework that integrates life’s biological, cognitive as well as social dimensions; and t o offer a clear systematic approach to some pertaining questions we have that negatively and aversively affect our world. This study purposes to critically analyze the message in this book, to look at every aspect of  human life that it addresses, I believe Capra himself being a physicist of prominence and an award winner in the science department, importantly with enough time, examined and fully dissected the theoretical scientific principles in every possible way and in their applicable nature, that in the end saw the connectivity of these scientific articulations to our own social lives today. At the same time, he saw in the most significant way the effect the things that we do as humans are going to later affect us if we do not change the organizational principles that govern and direct our lives today. The   book also   touches   almost   all   the   significant   aspects   of human   life   and   boldly substantiates just how each of these aspects affects the other if not well maintained. Generally, the book brings the world to understanding the extremes of destruction our current principles have on nature, making future life almost unimaginable. In the same vein, the book proposes the possible amicable measures that we can take to preserve our world, especially world leaders and world environmental organizations. For long the world has being striving towards globalization, this book addresses both the challenges and dangers of such a motive, addressing the complications of biotechnology and its nature. The book simply brings together the scientific world and our own social world, and pragmatically defining these worlds’ relationship and probable dependence. THE HIDDEN CONNECTIONS (THE BODY) The Nature of Life: Mostly, this would direct a person to the question â€Å"what s life? † a question which will clearly trigger an outburst of mental assumptions some driven by general thought, and some oriented by experience. An encyclopedic thesaurus Word Web, life is defined as being the experience of being alive; the course of human events and activities, or  the course of existence of an individual; the actions and events that occur in living. This may sound quite simple and brief, but Capra looks at it in quite broader perspective, and defines it in even more detailed way, pin-pointing specific aspects that make up the definition of life. Capra explains in some way that no man or organism is total island, in one way or another  every organism depends on other organisms, no wonder I personally a ‘symbiotic’ kind of  relation where one organism of a different specie cannot live without the other, the interdependence of organisms where each organism benefits from the other. The practical of  such relationship is that of plants and animals, animals basically cannot make their own food so they depend on the photosynthetic process of plants, through which plants make food, at the same time releasing oxygen which animals do need forth the process of respiration. Maturana and Varela (1980) quoted by Capra (2002), in their definition of life came up with the concept of ‘autopoiesis’ which factually mean â€Å"self-making†, this concept particularly amalgamates   two defining characteristics or aspects of cellular life which are the physical boundary and the metabolic network; and in contrast to the surfaces of crystals or large molecules, the boundary of an autopoietic system is chemically distinct from the rest of the system and it participates in metabolic processes by assembling itself and by selectively filtering incoming and outgoing molecules. Therefore, the definition of a living system as an autopoietic network means that the phenomenon of life has to be understood as a property of  the system as a whole, just as much as Pier Luigi (2008) mentions that life cannot be attributed to any single molecular component, not even to the DNA or RNA but only to the entire bounded metabolic network. ‘Autopoiesis provides a clear and powerful criterion for distinguishing between living and nonliving systems. For example, it tells us that viruses re not alive, because they lack their  own metabolism. Outside living cells, viruses are inert molecular structures consisting of  proteins and nucleic acids. A virus is essentially a chemical message that needs the metabolism of a living host cell to produce new virus particles, according to the instructions encoded in its DNA or RNA. The new particles are not built within the boundary of the virus itself, but outside in the host cell,’ Capra (2002). So, the autopoiesis th eory strongly supports and founds the Santiago theory in some way. It explains and provides answers to many other  questions that surround the issue life and its natural defining features and traits, it can as well symbiotic relationships, organizations, and social networks of organisms. During the process of respiration, animals release carbon dioxide which plants need for the process of photosynthesis, so plants need animals for the carbon dioxide, and plants animals need plants for the oxygen. We (animals) primarily need each other to survive. God created a world that nourishes, restores, and preserves itself it were not for human activities that have degraded to total ruin, for example, a livestock farmer lets his/her livestock feed on the pasture, as they graze, they drop dung on the pastures which will in the next rain season dissolve to nourish the soil as fertilizer, promoting an even better outgrowth of  pasture, therefore the soil nourishment depends on the livestock, and the nourishment of the livestock depends on the soil. Capra looks at life as not being solely determined by the inherent design but views it as an evolving process that engages a complete epigenetic network or external factors, making it continuously responding to both physical and chemical constrictions we exert on our environment. There is one common character that all living organisms share and this is unquestionable. They all have cells, be it animals, people, plants, or microorganisms such as bacteria, virus or  fungi, all of them have cells that build up to give a structure. Despite transitions and extreme conditions, the genetic blueprint of organisms has so far stayed intact in most cases, some have succumbed to the inevitability of evolution, but some have been the same for thousands of years and the dependence upon another species of organisms have been carried on and on. In his definition of life, Capra (2002:6) uses the bacterial cell to clearly delineate what life is all about, he states that when a cell is viewed under a microscope one can easily notice that inside it a metabolic processes that uses special macromolecules consisting of elongated chains of atoms, and two of such macromolecules are common in all living cells, and these are proteins and the nucleic acid (the Deoxyribonucleic Acid-DNA and the Ribonucleic Acid-RNA). Basically, there are two kinds of proteins as well; the enzymes act catalysts for most metabolic processes, where as the structural proteins form part of the cell structure. The DNA and the RNA within the cell work hand-in-hand determining that crucial bond defining the cell’s genetic and metabolic features. The Santiago Theory: Maturana and Varela (1980:13) in theoretical definition of the Santiago theory say all living systems are cognitive systems, and that living as a process is itself a process of cognition, and the two further cement that ‘this statement is valid for all organisms in spite of whether such organism got a nervous system or not. Initially in the world of philosophy Rene Descartes (1596-1650) emphasized the Cartesian View which promotes dualism as follows which suggests that the body operates like some kind of  machine, having material properties of extension and motion, that it operates within the doctrines of physics; and further articulates that the mind and soul on the other is kind of none-material, making it a unit without extension and motion, and follows not the rules of physics. Descartes stressed that it is only the human beings that have minds, and that the mind acts together with the body at the pineal gland, a tiny pine-like endocrine gland located close to the central part of the brain which produces melatonin, a hormone responsible for regulating the patterns of sleeping or waking up as well as other seasonal functions. This understanding generally relates that it is the mind that basically and pragmatically controls the entire, and that at the same time the body can as well manipulate the reasoning of the mind, especially in cases where a person acts out of an emotional intuition. This theory looks at cognition as a component quite indispensable in the issues of systems, it practically implies that almost every activity that takes place or transpires in the system processes require cognition, which Capra stipulates as taking place in phases as follows, ‘Cognition, is not a representation of an independently existing world, but rather a continual bringing forth of a world through the process of living. The interactions of a living system with its environment are cognitive interactions, and the process of living itself is a process of  cognition. In the words of Maturana and Varela, â€Å"to live is to know†. As a living organism goes through its individual pathway of structural changes, each of these changes corresponds to a cognitive act, which means that learning and development are merely two sides of the same coin. The first type, known as â€Å"primary consciousness,† arises when cognitive processes are accompanied by basic perceptual, sensory and emotional experience. Primary consciousness is probably experienced by most mammals and perhaps by some birds and other vertebrates. The second type of consciousness, sometimes called â€Å"higher-order consciousness,† involves self-awareness—a concept of self, held by a thinking and reflecting subject. This experience of self-awareness emerged during the evolution of the great apes, or  Ã¢â‚¬Å"hominids,† together with language, conceptual thought and all the other characteristics that fully unfolded in human consciousness. Because of the critical role of reflection in this higher-order conscious experience, I shall call it â€Å"reflective consciousness. Reflective consciousness involves a level of cognitive abstraction that includes the ability to hold mental images, which allows us to formulate values, beliefs, goals and strategies. This evolutionary stage is of central relevance to the main theme of this book—the extension of the new understanding of life to the social domain— because with the evolution of language arose not only the inner world of concepts and ideas, but a lso the social world of organized relationships’ Capra (2002:38-39). According to Capra (2002:34) ‘the central insight of the Santiago Theory is the identification of cognition, the process of knowing, with the process of life. Cognition, according to Maturana and Varela (1980), is the activity involved in the self-generation and self-perpetuation of living networks. In other words, cognition is the very process of life. The organizing activity of living systems, at all levels of life, is mental activity. The interactions of   a   living   organism—plant,   animal   or   human—with   its   environment   are   cognitive interactions. Thus, life and cognition are inseparably connected. Mind—or, more accurately, mental activity—is immanent in matter at all levels of life. ’ This to me sounds more prudent and quite rational in comparison to the other perceptions, in opposition to Rene’s theories the Santiago Theory is more clearer and comprehensible even for low class students, it brings to life the real life situation that we all experience everyday, it makes one see the connection and dependability of organisms upon other organisms, taking into perspective, the biotic and abiotic factors on nature. According to the online encyclopedia (Wikipedia, 2010) Descartes believed that this special gland was the ‘seat of the soul’ an understanding he purported with many reasons stated respectively as follows; firstly, he understood that the soul is unitary or one and this to him meant the pineal gland was an entity despite it being proven hemispherical; second to this he discovered that this gland was positioned near the ventricles making him believe the cerebrospinal fluid worked through the nerves to control the body, as well as regulating the processes manipulated by the pineal gland. and finally Descartes despite figuring-out that both human beings and animals had the pineal gland he still resolved that only humans had minds advancing in his mind the idea that animals cannot feel pain or are insensitive to pain. Unfortunately the Cartesian view gets questioned and in the process challenged by the Santiago Theory which takes a totally different stand from the philosophy o f Descartes. The Santiago Theory vehemently recognizes the reality of cognition, normally defined as the ability or the process of knowing, or the activity involved in self-generation and self-perpetuation of living systems, entailing that cognition is actually the life itself, Maturana &Varela (1980). The Santiago theory moves away from Descartes’ view of life and instead studies the mind from a systematic understanding and has so far given to the interdisciplinary field of Cognitive Science; and according to Capra (2002:34), this theory holds the ‘Organizing activity of all living systems at all levels of life, is actually mental activity’. Therefore, the old perception of the mind as a ‘thinking thing’ has progressed into a view of  the mind as being a process where the ‘entire structure of the organism participates’ Capra (2002:37). Many other views have so far been brought forth to oppose Descartes view, but the Santiago Theory has so far been the first scientific hypothesis that has really questioned and practically overcame the Cartesian dissection of mind and matter, and from the optimistic point of view, this theory is believed to have far-reaching implications. Generally, this theory has brought the mind and body/matter together viewed as two harmonizing and complementary aspects defining the phenomenon of life. So far, the theory has already brought substantial knowledge and understanding concerning the beginning with a simple micro cell, the mind, the matter, the process and the structure at all levels which have so far proven to be inseparable and interdependent in one way or another, this unites the mind, matter and life. In the Santiago theory (Capra, 2002:34-36) it is clearly stated that as ‘a living organism responds to environmental influences with structural changes, these changes will in turn alter  its future behavior. In other words, a structurally coupled system is a learning system. Continual structural changes in response to the environment—and consequently continuing adaptation, learning and development—are key characteristics of the behavior of all living beings. Because of its structural coupling, we can call the behavior of an animal intelligent, but would not apply that term to the behavior of a rock. As it keeps interacting with its environment, a living organism will undergo a sequence of structural changes, and over time it will form its own individual pathway of structural coupling. At any point on this pathway, the structure of the organism is a record of previous structural changes. The Santiago theory advances the issue of higher order consciousness or ‘reflective consciousness which involves a level of cognitive abstraction that includes the ability to hold mental images’ Capra (2002:39). This inevitable capability gives human beings the repertoire to create a value system and act cordially. In the simplest of perception, this theory drives us take a person’s subjective and prejudiced experience into some version which has been conventionally ignored by science. The Santiago specifically states that mind is no thing rather a process operating through the brain relating that brain and mind is actually one between process and structure. It is also of some degree of importance to note that this eradicates the idea that the brain is the only compartment involved in the process of  cognition, clearly illustrating the fact that in all vertebrate organisms the immune system is actually a complicated network of unrelenting interconnectedness, just as much as the nervous system serving similarly the vital co-ordination purpose. According   to   the   Wikipedia   (2010)   on   the   Santiago   theory,   cognition   appears   as   a consequence of continual interaction between the system and its environment, delineating that the   continuous   interactions   between   system   and   the   environment   triggers   two-sided disturbances viewed as problems forcing the system to use its functional specialization routine to find solutions to the perturbations. It is of importance to note in this theory that the system slowly adapts to its environment positioning itself to face-up to the disturbances or  intrusion in order to sustain survival. This therefore means the resulting complexity  complicatedness of living systems is cognition emanating from the bilateral perturbations in the system/environment outline. The theory is really making the scientific world dig deep into these discoveries, eradicating misunderstandings and doubts, setting up the facts straight from experimental experience and observations. Extending the System Approach: Capra, resorts that the systematic understanding of life practically allows the world to see and comprehend the fundamental unity to life, that different living systems exhibit similar patterns of organization, Capra (2002:81),. This understanding can practically be applied to our communities, and the impact will definitely be significant. The defining blueprint of the systems is quite complicated, but can be understood, Capra (2002:81), when we extend this understanding and nowledge, applying it to the social domain we actually apply our ‘knowledge of life’s basic patterns and delineating principles of  organization, and specifically apply our understanding of living networks to social/societal reality’. The living networks in our social communities work just like the brain in its environment; the two diverse situations easily match and model each other. Capra views his extension of the systems approach to the social domain as exp licitly including the material world, which is quite unusual since traditionally social scientists were not interested in the world of matter. He basically mentions that ‘our academic disciplines have been organized in such a way that the natural sciences deal with social structures, which are perceived to be especially the rules of behavior; stating that in the near future this strict division will no longer be possible since the key challenge of this new century for social scientists, natural scientists and everyone else will be to build ecologically sustainable communities, designed in such a way that their technologies and social institutions, their  material and social structure do not interfere with nature’s hereditary ability to sustain life;†¦the design principles of our future social institutions must be consistent with the principles of  organization that nature has evolved to sustain the web of life. A unified conceptual framework for the understanding of material and social structures will be essential this task’ Capra (2002:19). The Social Network: In every society or community there must be a distinctive social kind of  network and on the issue of this kind of network Capra states that social networks use communication, which normally takes place in multiple feedback loops, as some measure to reproduce itself and its culture, and thus its value and belief. This actually addresses social reality. Capra mentions that wherever there is social organization there is power courtesy of  the inevitable conflicts of interest, and it is in these situations where ‘power plays a central role in the emergence of social structure’ which happens to provide people with rules or  principles of behavior, Capra (2002:90). Normally the ‘social networks generate material structures buildings, roads, technologies, etc, which become structural components of the network; and they also produce material goods and artifacts that are exchanged between the network’s nodes. However, the production of material structures in social networks is quite different from that in biological and ecological networks. ‘The structures are created for a purpose, according to some design, and they embody some meaning; and to understand the activities of social systems, it is crucial to study them from that perspective†¦perspective of meaning includes a multitude of interrelated characteristics that are essential to understanding social reality. Meaning itself is a systemic phenomenon: it always has to do with context. Webster's Dictionary defines meaning as â€Å"an idea conveyed to the mind that requires or allows of interpretation,† and interpretation as â€Å"conceiving in the light of individual belief, judgment, or circumstance. In other words, we interpret something by putting it into a particular context of concepts, values, beliefs, or circumstances. To understand the meaning of anything we need to relate it to other things in its environment , in its past, or in its future. Nothing is meaningful in itself’ Capra (2002:83-84). According to Wenger (2006), organisms in an environment develop a common practice which characterizes the shared manner of how things are executed and relate to each other, a reality that allows such organisms to attain their unifying course, and in most cases after a while such practice turns to be a significant bond within the participants. This book clearly depicts from its author that when we try to extend this new understanding of life to the social domain, we immediately come up against a bewildering multitude of phenomena, rules of behavior, values, intentions, goals, strategies, designs, power relations that play no role in most of then on-human world but are essential to human social life, however though, these different characteristics of social reality all share a basic common feature that provides a natural link to the systems view of life developed in the other chapters of the book, Capra (2002:73). Normally this is how social networks come into being, and such communities have special aspects in common such as; that impeccable looking common understanding, the general involvement of the community members, the regular round of activities that the members become   accustomed   encompassing   the   accepted   rules   of   behavior,   attitude   and comprehension which are normally sustained in due course, Wenger (2008). It such attributes that end up becoming differentiating principles of a community, despite emanating from the ordinary; they primarily become the identifying traits for a specific community. From the most general of perspectives, the social networks of mankind are defined by minor  and major aspects that maintain and sustain the network, and the connectivity in the entire metaphor, the same critically resembles the systems in the human beings and most other  organisms. In any typical social network there are strict outlines that define and regulate behavior and attitudes a practice that results in the creation of ethics and norms that different societies resort to consider for societal order. Capra states that ‘at all scales of nature, we find living systems nesting within other living systems, networks within   networks. Their  boundaries are not boundaries of separation but boundaries of identity. All living systems communicate with one another and share resources across their boundaries’. This clearly shows the possibility of social networks in another living web of networks interacting just as normal. Organization and Change: In most cases where an effort to bring change has been made and proven to be futile due to feeling and assumption that people resisted the intended change, the general conclusion made is the people resisted is refused to buy into the introduced change, be it for their good and benefit. Capra defiles and contradicts this idea and calls it false, stating that people only resist having change if such change is not negotiable meaning if such change is simply imposed on them, normally societies or communities would appreciate and support change if their input on the idea is sort. It makes them feel part of that change, and part of a social community that operates systematically. When we transfer on the metaphor of  an organization from machine to the living systems we actually begin to view organizations as communities with collective identities that share common values. During an interview by Barbara Vogl (2010) with Capra mentioned in answer to he question concerning self-organization in our individual lives and organizations could be useful in helping us see how to get through the anxiety in our period of transition and passing into the  new paradigm thinking, he replied and said ‘Well I think self-organization and the newer  understanding of life and com plexity, when it is applied to the social realm and human organizations, can help people to find their authenticity as human beings The old paradigm model is a mechanistic model where people are seen as parts of a big machine and the machine is designed by experts who either sit at the top of the organization or are brought in from outside as consultants. Then this design of new structures is imposed upon the people who work in the organization and they are pigeon-holed in certain departments with well-defined boundaries. So the underlying model is that of a machine working very smoothly. What self-organization tells you, among many other things, is that creativity is an inherent property of all living systems. All living systems are creative because they have the ability to reach out and create something new. In the last 20-25 years we have begun to understand the dynamics of this creativity, in terms of emergence of new structures and in terms of  instability, bifurcation points, and the spontaneous emergence of order. This is the underlying dynamics of creativity at all levels of life. When people understand this they will realize that human individuals as well as groups of individuals are inherently creative. So when you have an organization and you want to design a new structure and you bring in outside experts and then impose this structure on the organization you have to spend a lot of energy and money to sell the idea to the employees and the manager. Since human beings are inherently creative they will not accept the idea as it is. Since this will deny their humanity. Therefore, you can give them orders and they will nominally adhere to the orders but they will circumvent the orders; they will re-invent the orders and will modify it, either boycott it or embellish it, adding their own interpretation’. This to me implies the fact that for anything to be of some level of importance and value to the people, the people need to understand it first, have some insight on its implications, put on balance the advantages and the disadvantages, enabling them to be able to define the situation in its true context. Organizations or companies with collective identities do exist in sharp contrast to the ‘economical company, whose priorities are determined by the purely economic criteria Capra (2002:105). In further expatiation of this situation Capra states that ‘organizations cannot be controlled through direct interventions, but can be influenced by giving impulses rather than instructions, Capra (2002:112). In most cases interventions end up causing tension and stampedes in communities, but impulses which are normally conditioning can gradually bring about the desired change. Capra continues to point out that it is the meaningful disturbances that normally trigger structural changes within an organization, instead of force Capra(2002:112). The general deduction is that if you intend to bring about change, it is best that you involve the people as the subject of that change, for such change will directly affect them so they should be consulted about the change before it is applied, so if you involve people in the creation of change, then definitely change will be come. Organization in an economy: Organization plays a major role in shaping the economy of  our social communities and the world at large. The Hidden connections discuses the most probing issues in the world today, starting with politics, sociology, education, ethics, philosophy and design, and the book’s main theme is change in these important aspects of our  lives. In an interview with Ecotecture (2002) addressing the issue of economy, Capra states that he calls for change of values, a change of politics, a change of attitudes, with the general goal of building a sustainable society and the future that is sustainable, and believable for our  children, and further explained as an example that ‘in order to change the economy in such away that it becomes sustainable, one needs to understand the world economy, which today is a network of computers, a network of flows of money and information and power that extends globally. So we need to understand how we can introduce a different set of values into the global economy. ’ He extends that ‘in order to do that, we need to understand the relationship between living networks and values and human choices and politics. So it needs certain kind of philosophy and†¦spiritual stance/background, but it also needs the scientific understanding. ‘He clearly stipulates that in addit ion to being living communities, organizations are as ‘social institutions   designed   for   specific   purposes   and   functioning   in   a   specific   economic environment’ Capra (2002:125). Economic Globalization: Global economics has been under promotion for two decades now, all in effort to encourage standardization in the rules that regulate and control international trading. Globalization literary refers to the process of making something gain global and internal recognition and acceptance, a transformational process of turn simple local or  national rule or principle into an international law, or understanding. It is a process by which people of the world are fused together into a distinct society that share a common understanding and work as an entity; it enjoins the economical, technological, and socio-cultural together with the political authorities of this world, Croucher (2004:10). Upon this Jagdish (2004) substantiates further that globalization is quite often used to imply economic globalization which means the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spreading of technology internationally. In chapter seven of the Hidden Connections Capra (2003) further explained and brought more light on the definition of economic globalization in the following statement during the conference; â€Å"During the past three decades, the information technology revolution has given rise to a new type of capitalism that is profoundly different from the one formed during the Industrial Revolution, or the one that emerged after the Second World War. It is characterized by three fundamental features. Its core economic activities are global; the main sources of productivity and competitiveness are innovation, knowledge generation, and information processing; and it is structured largely around networks of financial flows. This new global capitalism is also referred to as â€Å"the new economy,† or simply as â€Å"globalization. †   In the new economy, capital works in real time, moving rapidly through global financial networks. From these networks it is invested in all kinds of economic activity, and most of what is extracted as profit is channeled back into the meta-network of financial flows. Sophisticated information and communication technologies enable financial capital to move rapidly from one option to another in a relentless global search for investment opportunities. The movements of this electronically operated global casino do not follow any market logic. The markets are continually manipulated and transformed by computer-enacted investment strategies, subjective perceptions of influential analysts, political events in any part of the world, and most significantly by unsuspected turbulences caused by the complex interactions of capital flows in this highly nonlinear system†. However, Capra (2002) further extends that in order for the global economic automatization process called ‘automaton’ to properly work it has to be programmed by human actors and institutions giving rise to the new economy comprising of two crucial components, which are values and operational rules. Capra does not hide the fact that these automated global financial network processions do ‘†¦assign specific financial value to every asset in every economy’, he clears that this is no perfect measure though, because ‘it involves economic calculations based on advanced mathematical models, information and opinions provided by market valuation firms, financial gurus, leading central bankers, and other  influential analysts, as well as unregulated information turbulences’; which mean that ‘the tradable financial of any asset subject to continual adjustments is an emergent property of the automaton’s highly nonlinear dynamics. However, underlying all evaluations is the basic principle of unfettered capitalism: that money-making should always be valued higher than democracy, human rights, environmental protection or any other value†¦ in the process entirely changing the principle’. Basically, the World Trade Organization (WTO) was initiated the mid-1990s to watch over and determine economic globalization; so far politicians and business leaders promised that economic globalization would benefit all the people in all countries worldwide through the process of  free trade, but instead of really sticking by this promise the organization has been responsible for a ‘multitude of interconnected fatal consequences’ Capra (2002:129), that are affecting especially developing countries, that are still in their developing stage in most aspects; which brings me to the next question that Capra addresses in this book, and that is the consequences of economic globalization. Every decision one takes despite the level at which the decision is taken there will always be advantages and disadvantages, benefits and consequences and the process of economic globalization has not been an exclusion from this natural phenomenon, in this case most of  the powerful and controlling nations are benefiting the most, and the some nations are really suffering from the entire operation. According to Capra (2003), ‘The impact of the new economy on human well-being has been mostly negative. It has enriched global elite of  financial speculators, entrepreneurs, and high-tech professionals. At the very top, there has been an unprecedented accumulation of wealth, and global capitalism has also benefited some national economies, especially in Asian countries. But overall its social and environmental consequences have been disastrous. The rise of global capitalism has been accompanied by rising social inequality and polarization, both internationally and within countries. In particular, poverty and social inequality have increased through the process of social exclusion, which is a direct consequence of the new economy’s network structure. As the flows of capital and information interlink worldwide networks, they exclude from these networks all populations and territories that are of no value or interest to their search for financial gain. As a result, certain segments of societies, areas of cities, regions, and even entire countries become economically irrelevant. Thus, a new impoverished segment of humanity has emerged around the world as a direct consequence of globalization. It comprises large areas of the globe, including much of Sub-Saharan Africa and rural areas of Asia and Latin America. But the new geography of social exclusion also includes portions of every country and every city in the world’. Capra (2003) further explains that ‘According to the doctrine of economic globalization known   as   Ã¢â‚¬Å"neo-liberalism,†   the   free-trade   agreements   imposed   by   the   World   Trade Organization (WTO) on its member countries will increase global trade; this will create a global economic expansion; and global economic growth will decrease poverty, because its benefits will eventually â€Å"trickle down† to all. This reasoning is fundamentally flawed. Global capitalism does not alleviate poverty and social exclusion; on the contrary, it exacerbates them. Neo-liberalism has been blind to this effect because corporate economists’ have traditionally excluded the social costs of economic activity from their models. Similarly, most conventional economists have ignored the new economy’s environmental cost — the increase and acceleration of global environmental destruction, which is as severe, if not more so, than its social impact. One of the tenets of neo-liberalism is that poor countries should concentrate on producing a few special goods for export in order to obtain foreign exchange, and should import most other commodities. This emphasis on export has led to the rapid depletion of the natural resources required to produce export crops in country after country — diversion of freshwater from vital rice paddies to prawn farms; a focus on water-intensive crops, such as sugar  cane, that result in dried-up river beds; conversion of good agricultural land into cash-crop plantations; and forced migration of large numbers of farmers from their lands. All over the world   there   are   countless   examples   of   how   economic   globalization   is   worsening environmental   destruction;   and since money-making   is the dominant   value of global capitalism, its representatives seek to eliminate environmental regulations under the guise of  Ã¢â‚¬Å"free trade† wherever they can, lest these regulations interfere with profits. Thus, the new economy causes environmental destruction not only by increasing the impact of  its operations on the world’s ecosystems, but also by eliminating national environmental laws in country after country. In other words, environmental destruction is not only a side effect, but is also an integral part of the design of global capitalism’ Capra (2003). One can clearly see that in scientific perspective the world is not really benefiting from the issue of economic globalization considering the number of consequences the whole program brings and foretells for the future in relation to the benefits, personally I see more disadvantages and more consequences accumulated in the entire operation coming in the name of money making and development. The worst part of this whole motion is that its future impact on the natural vegetation of the world is really unpleasant, trees are being cut out in the name of development, and minerals are being extremely extracted at rate that the replenishment process is by many times left behind, fumes and harmful gases from factories and industries are being emitted in the atmosphere, marine resources have been exploited without the really consideration of the impact such activities may have o the world environment in the near future, or the impact on the biodiversity of lives in different habitats on the planet. So far the principles of ecology are not so difficult to comprehend and follow, Capra (2002) simplifies them as follows; Networks: As we have already seen in this essay the unrelenting networking of organisms, networks within networks. We also saw just how living systems communicate with one another and share resources even beyond the margins of their reach. Cycles: This must be gener al knowledge at this time in life, we generally should accept the reality that all living organisms feed on continual flows of matter and energy within their  environment to sustain life, and acknowledge the reality that all organisms produce waste. It is also of greater to note that the ecosystem itself does not produce any waste because one organism’s waste happens to be the next specie’s food, so in the end nothing really goes to waste, almost everything is useful in one way or another making matter cycle continually through the web of life. Solar energy: We all need sunlight, both plants and people. Sunlight is the common source of  vitamin D for animals, and green plants transform sunlight to chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, making plants the ultimate source of food for both animals and human beings on the entire planet, running the ecological cycle accordingly. Partnership: It is of greater importance to note that the exchanges of energy nd resources in an ecosystem get sustained through pervasive co-operation, stating the verity that life came by co-operation, partnership and networking. Diversity: Under this aspect Capra mentions that ecosystems achieve stability and resilience through th e richness and complexity their ecological webs, and the greater the biodiversity, the more the resilience and buoyancy. These clearly show just how nature adapts and adjusts to its natural environment or any other factors that triggers reactions of the organisms. Dynamic Balance: Ecosystem is no stationery realms; they are actually flexible and ever  fluctuating, and its flexibility come as consequence of multiple feedback loops that keep the system in the state of dynamic balance. Therefore all ecosystem variables fluctuate around their optimal values. If only we stick by these principles, and do everything in careful consideration of the involved dangers we would really be on the right path by now. So far our ignorance and negligence is slowly making us pay through what we choose to call ‘natural catastrophes’ when in reality these are no more natural calamities but rather man-made, our activities are making our world prone to harm. I really wouldn’t say we do this unknowingly considering the level of both the general, social and scientific knowledge of the world at this moment. Everybody is educated today making it quite easier for any transmission of information. The people in the science departments of the world fully understand the consequences of the activities they invent and institute in the name of science and invention. This is what makes Eco-literacy and eco-design subjects of concern to the future-concerned citizens of this planet, for if we get the people to understand this reality the situation may improve towards a positive and conducive future. The Role of NGOs: Everybody that is an inhabitant of this planet is practically and directly involved in either destroying it or restoring it. In one way or another we all contribute to this paradoxical situation, each one of us fall into one of these categories, and this include the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). The encyclopedic online dictionary Wikipedia, 2010) defines NGOs as follows, ‘A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by natural or  legal lessons that operates independently from any government and a term usually used b y governments to refer to entities that have no government   status. In   the   cases   in   which   NGOs   are   funded   totally   or   partially   by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue some wider  social aim that has political aspects, but that are not overtly political organizations such as political parties. Unlike the term â€Å"inter-governmental organization†, the term â€Å"non-governmental organization† has no generally agreed legal definition. In many jurisdictions, these types of organization are called â€Å"civil society organizations† or referred to by other names’. These   organizations   are   operated   separately   from   governments;   they   are   stand-alone organizations that globally strive for the betterment of the ordinary or common people world-wide. There are so far both local/national and international Non-Governmental Organization in the entire world established for a diversity of activities, as they see fit, sometimes according to local, national, international or even global needs; they can either be charitable orientation; service orientation; participatory orientation; or empowering orientation type, and are always non-profit making organizations. These organizations’ primary aim is to help promote and encourage collaborations, relationships or partnerships between NGOs in all countries throughout the world, so that together and as an entity we can more effectively cohort with the United Nations (UN) and each other so that we are able to create a more peaceful, serene, just, equitable and sustainable world for our generation as well as for the upcoming future generations. According to Capra (2002) ‘At the turn of this century, an impressive global coalition of  nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), many of them led by men and women with deep personal roots in the sixties, formed around the core values of human dignity and ecological sustainability. In 1999, hundreds of these grassroots organizations interlinked electronically for several months to prepare for joint protest actions at the meeting of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle. The â€Å"Seattle Coalition,† as it is now called, was extrem ely successful in derailing the WTO meeting and in making its views known to the world. Its concerted actions have permanently changed the political climate around the issue of  economic globalization’†¦ and furthers that ‘At the second of these meetings, the NGOs proposed a whole set of alternative trade policies, including concrete and radical proposals for  restructuring global financial institutions, which would profoundly change the nature of  globalization’. So far ‘the global justice movement exemplifies a new kind of political movement that is typical of our Information Age. Because of their skillful use of the Internet, the NGOs in the coalition are able to network with each other, share information, and mobilize their members with unprecedented speed. As a result, the new global NGOs have emerged as effective political actors who are independent of traditional national or international institutions. They constitute a new kind of global civil society. This new form of alternative global community, sharing core values and making extensive use of electronic networks in addition to frequent human contacts, is one of the most important legacies of the sixties; and if it succeeds in reshaping economic globalization so as to make it compatible with the values of human dignity and ecological sustainability,’†¦during the sixties the most important and enduring legacy of that the world community developed has been the creation and subsequent flourishing of a global alternative culture that shares a set of core values. Although many of  these values e. g. environmentalism, feminism, gay rights, global justice — were shaped by cultural movements in the seventies, eighties, and nineties, their essential core was first expressed by the sixties' counterculture. Therefore, many of today's senior progressive political activists, writers, and community leaders trace the roots of their original inspiration back to the sixties’ Capra (2002). This is basically the much the NGOs strives to do, to restore the world to its naturally vegetative state, to help the poor and the needy, and hope to help those ravaged by natural catastrophes such as flooding, hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, famines and many other calamitous situations. Many countries that struggle economically or affected by any kind of difficulties have benefited from these non-governmental organizations in many ways such as in food relief programs, volunteer teachers from a diversity of developed countries, financially sponsorships, and further educational sponsorships, and many other  ways. Bunge (2002:233) mentions that the rational first step at the moment is to wade towards sustainability, and the second step being the one that involves Eco-design where ‘we need to apply our ecological knowledge to the fundamental redesign of our technologies and social institutions’ and as stated in process bridging the separating opening between the two,(technology and social institution). When we all work towards this idea, the idea of improve and caring for our world we would change a great deal of the happenings around the world; which could practically lead to the quick restoration of our planet before we bring it its total destruction. The reality that we are destroying our vegetation which is our natural source of  food and oxygen, we are actually putting ourselves at risk. Plants need us (animals) just as much as we need them, they depend on us the same way we depend on them. Upon this is part played by non-living objects such as water, air, the soil and all o ther abiotic matters that are vital to our sustenance of life. They form part of ecosystem even if they are non-living, they contribute greatly to self-sustaining abilities of our planet and form part of the web of  life in one way or another, without water plants would wilt, and animals would die of thirst, and without air both plants and animals would suffocate, and with no soil there wouldn’t be plants for us to feed on. So this is life in its real form, all contributing factors are vital to the sustainability of life in the future. Conclusion This essay is quite practically applicable in our real life situation; it fully conveys the primary hypothesis of the Capra’s book â€Å"The Hidden Connections†. It simplifies the complicate and great amount of information he whole book contains, and most of all it is highly educative and reasonable, compromising of almost every component that matters in life on this planet. In this assignment, I learned the importance of understanding the trend of life as well as the flows of ene rgy within the unrelenting interconnecting chains of life. It is simple; I learned that plants need dead organic materials for food, herbivorous animals feed on those plants, and the carnivorous animals feed on those herbivorous animals and later they all die providing manure back into the soil which plants will suck-up once again to grow, simply explaining the theory of producers and consumers. I also learned in this study that despite the efforts made by Rene Descartes to define life and help the world understand there are some facts which would have helped him define it even better if only he paid more attention to important factors that save as the basis of life. The Hidden Connection is a book if taken seriously and put to action can bring back our world to its initial natural state. The book clearly defines just how we have destroyed our natural world. In the development of weaponry, back in 1945 atomic bombs were created with devastating long lasting effects on the environment, and the vegetation alike including all the living organisms within its reach. Wasn’t this supposed to be a scientific breakthrough in the science of war? But in the end this defined the ultimate weapon with which man will completely destroy the whole world. Technology so far came up with many efficient measures of doing things increasing productivity in the process, many cars and machineries that emit harmful gases into the atmosphere have been heavily produced, huge upon tremendous amounts of fossil fuel gases have been gushed out into the atmosphere sucking out the gases important to the maintenance of the ultra-violet ray protective ozone layer and this has resulted in extreme temperature in our world today. Technology once again increased productivity in the agricultural sector so as to sustain the world’s ever growing population, and so they introduced genetically modified products that also have effects on the animals that feed on them including human beings, thus breaking the natural rules of replenishment. This was meant to be a scientific break-through as well but later backfired. Fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, and many other  chemicals meant to advance humanity and help prevent the world from starvation have turned out to fatal substances, whereby when washed down the streams during rain and flood seasons they affect the water upon which most wild organisms and animals depend for water, the animals drink such water and get affected, some die from the effects, while some develop resistance to the effects but continue to carry the resulting illness of which people will kill for meat, and eat the infected meat which will clearly cause negative consequences. If we want to save the world for our children, we really have to act now before it gets too late. Preventing our world from getting destroyed by our activities is a better alternative than trying to salvage the remaining patches after destroying. This is why Capra suggested the ecological alternative, repairing the world by us can be difficult, but the good thing is that our world has natural abilit ies to restore itself if given a chance of restoration. At this moment in time, there are millions of totally extinct species that once existed and defined the beauty of our world. We can still save and manage to replenish the remaining species if taken into serious consideration the suggestions made by Capra in his book â€Å"The Hidden Connections†. Bibliography 1. Barbara Vogl, (2010). PATTERNS- Interview with Fritjof Capra. http://www. haven. net/patterns/capra. html (Accessed on 11/14/2011) 2. Bhagwati, Jagdish (2004). In defense of Globalization. Oxford, New York: Oxford University PressCC 3. Capra, Fritjof (2002b). Where Have All the Followers Gone? Reflections on the Spirit and Legacy of the Sixties, December 1, 2002. Mindwalk, http://www. terehesshu/english/capra2. html (Accessed on 11/13/2011) 4. Capra, Fritjof, (2002). The Hidden Connections. New York, USA: Doubleday a division of Random House Inc 5. Descartes, Rene (1644). The Principles of Philosophy (IX) 6. Europe Commission, (2011). Organic Farming: Good for nature, good for you. http://www. ec. europa. eu/agriculture/organic/organic-farming/what-organic_en (Accessed on 11/13/2011) 7. Food and agricultural Organization of United Nations, (2010). What FAQ Does: Food Forever (The Green Revolution). FAQ: United Nations, http://www. fan. org/kids/en/revolution. html (Accessed on 11/13/2011) 8. Goodstein, David (2004) Out of Gas: The End of the Age of Oil, W. W. New York: Norton and Company, p. 128 9. Laura De Francesco (2004). Profile: Capra Fritjof: Nature Biotechnology. San Francisco: Nature Publishing 10. Maturana, Humberto R. Varela, Francisco J, (1980). Autopoiesis and Cognition. The Realization of the Living. Dordrecht: Reidel, p. 13 11. Philip S, Wenz (December, 2002). Connecting With Fritjof Capra. Ecotecture. http://www. ecotecture. com/library_eco/interviews/capra1a. html Accessed on 11/14/2011 12. Pier Luigi, L (2008). The Emergence of Life-F rom Chemical Origin to Synthetic Biology. Cambridge University Press 13. Shiela L, Croucher (2004). Globalization and Belonging: The Politics of Identity a Changing World. Rowman & Littlefield, p. 10 14. The Association of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future, (1990). The Talloires Declaration. Washington, DC. www. ulsf. rg/programs_talloires_td. html Accessed on 11/14/2011 15. Wackermagel, M. , N. B. Schulz, D. Deumling, A. Callejas Linares, M. Jenkins, V. Kapos, C. Monfreda, J. Loh, N. Myers, R. Nargaard, and J. Randers (2002) â€Å"Tracking the Ecology Overshoot of the Human Economy, â€Å" Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences 99:9266-9271. 16. Wenger, Etienne. Communities of Practice. Healthcare Forum Journal/August: (1996). 17. Wenger, Etienne. Communities of Practice. Cambridge University Press 18. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2010). Non-Governmental Organizations. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/non-governmental_organizations. html. Accessed on 11/14 /2011idd

Tromp Loeil &the Interior (Renaissance) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Tromp Loeil &the Interior (Renaissance) - Essay Example Their creation was art and architecture whose sole motive was to deceive the eye on the reality of a painting. This was to be known as Trompe l’oeil, which in French is literally â€Å"to deceive the eye† (Damisch, 1984)1. This trompe l’oeil paintings and architecture have existed since then and are a crucial part of modern art and architecture. Trompe l’oeil is a style of art that was developed and popularized in the Renaissance era (Kristeller, 1965)2. The main technique used by these ancient artists was using perspective manipulations to achieve paintings that were self-reflective. The second crucial technique was in using art to develop deception through double wonderment (Damisch, 1984)3. The principle of double wonderment focused on two perspectives. The first perspective was to make the viewers of these images whether the paintings were real. Second wonder aroused by the painting was the question of just how the artist achieved such an effect The us e of oils was another prominent technique used in the renaissance paintings. Oils enhanced representation of distance using a gradation of tones. Light colored oils were used in the foreground picture flame. One of the main techniques of trompe l’oeil was linear perspective. This was a means of representing far away objects to scale with the close objects. Shading was also an indispensable technique for trompe l’oeil. ... Artists in the Renaissance era used techniques in painting that created a perception of depth. To achieve depth they had to employ a three dimensional perspective. One of the main techniques used by these artists was to overlap objects. When an object is drawn in front of another and overlapping it, the first object appears to be in front. In the Renaissance paintings, overlapping was the strongest indication of distance, and as objects are overridden continually, the perceived distance increases. Another technique used in the trompe l’oeil interiors of the renaissance era was use of diminishing scale. Objects were drawn into scale of size using this technique. Where two objects of the known same size are drawn one bigger than the other one, the bigger image is perceived to be closer. This was used extensively in the renaissance era especially with the Trompe l’oeil interiors (Tzonis, 1986)5. The artists in the renaissance era also used technique of diagonal lines to ac hieve diminishing scale. Where lines are drawn to narrow as they go further away, they create an illusion of depth. This is perhaps the most used technique in the Trompe l’oeil paintings. Diagonal lines were painted as they moved towards each other creating a perception of depth and diminishing scale. Another technique was the use of colors. A common assumption in art and architecture is that people see bright colors as being close. Such colors such as red and yellow are deemed to be close. The most commonly application of this technique in the renaissance was in drawing and painting of landscapes. For landscapes, to achieve depth, blue is used to haze far away objects giving an illusion of